Prognostic factors in intracranial epidural hematoma: lessons learned
Carlos Umberto Pereira, Joilson Francisco de Souza Júnior, Ana Beatriz Pereira Bieritz Pinto, Débora Moura da Paixão Oliveira, Samuel Pedro Pereira Silveira
Abstract
Introduction: Intracranial epidural hematoma (IHE) is considered a neurosurgical emergency. Its knowledge has been increasingly highlighted in the literature. Materials and Methods: The present literature review, was performed through the PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, and Google Scholar databases, published over 50 years. A total of 116 articles from 1975 to 2022 were selected for their relevance to the topic at hand. Results: The main factors influencing the prognosis of patients with IHE are: patient age, the time between injury and treatment, Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score ≤ 8 on admission or before surgery, presence of pupillary abnormalities/associated intracranial lesions. Conclusion: The prognosis is determined by several factors, the most important of which is the GCS grade at the time of admission, as discussed extensively in the literature. The functional outcome has been excellent when IEH is detected early and treated.
Keywords
References
1. Alliez JR, Hilal N, Kaya JM, Leone M, Reynier Y, Alliez B. Hématomes intracrâniens extra-duraux: À propôs de 100 cases récents. Neurochirurgie. 2005;51(5):464-70. http://doi.org/10.1016/ S0028-3770(05)83504-0. PMid:16327679.
2. Badhe VR, Bhamre S. Clinical evaluation and management outcome of extradural hematoma. MVP J Med Sci. 2018;5(1):49-54. http:// doi.org/10.18311/mvpjms/2018/v5/i1/11006.
3. Bricolo AP, Pasut LM. Extradural haematoma: toward zero mortality. Neurosurgery. 1984;14(1):8-12. http://doi.org/10.1227/00006123- 198401000-00003. PMid:6694798.
4. Jeong YH, Oh JW, Cho S. Clinical outcome of acute epidural hematoma in Korea: Preliminar report of 285 cases registred in the Korean Trauma Data Bank System. Korean J Neurotrauma. 2016;12(2):47-54. http://doi.org/10.13004/kjnt.2016.12.2.47. PMid:27857907.
5. Kalkan E, Cander B, Gul M, Girisgin S, Karabagli H, Sahin B. Prediction of prognosis in patients with epidural hematoma by a new stereological method. Tohoku J Exp Med. 2007;211(3):235-42. http:// doi.org/10.1620/tjem.211.235. PMid:17347548.
6. Kvarnes TL, Trumpy JH. Extradural hematoma: report of 132 cases. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1978;41(1-3):223-31. http://doi.org/10.1007/ BF01809151. PMid:665332.
7. Ndoumbe A, Ekeme MVP, Jemea B, Simeu C, Takongmo S. Epidemiological analysis of surgically treated acute traumatic epidural hematoma. Open J Modern Neurosurg. 2016;6(1):89-97. http:// doi.org/10.4236/ojmn.2016.63016.
8. Phonpraset C, Suwanwela C, Hongsaprabhas C, Prichayud P, O’Charoen S. Extradural hematoma: analysis of 138 cases. J Trauma. 1980;20(8):679-83. http://doi.org/10.1097/00005373-198008000-00008. PMid:7401209.
9. Thiam AB, Mudekereza PS, Ndooye N, et al. Hématome extradural. Étude epidemiologique a propos de 35 cas. J Neurochirurgie. 2013;18(1):13-20.
10. Bercionoglu H, Ersahin Y, Demirçivi E, Yurt I, Dönertras K, Tektas T. Nonoperative treatment of acute extradural hematomas: analysis of 80 cases. J Trauma. 1996;41(4):696-8. http://doi.org/10.1097/00005373- 199610000-00016. PMid:8858030.
11. Cheung PS, Lam JM, Yeung JH, Graham CA, Rainer TH. Outcome of traumatic extradural haematoma in Hong Kong. Injury. 2007;38(1):76- 80. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2006.08.059. PMid:17097656.
12. Noman K, Raihan MZ, Chowdhury EH, Ashadullah ATM, Sarkar MH, Hassain SS. Surgical management of traumatic extradural haematoma: experience with 610 patients and prospective analysis. Indian J Neurotrauma. 2008;5(2):75-9. http://doi.org/10.1016/ S0973-0508(08)80004-4.
13. Andrioli GC, Zuccarello M, Trinica G, Fiore D. Extradural hematomas in elderly. A statistical analysis of 58 cases. Adv Neurosurg 1984; 18-23.. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-69360-1_38.
14. Cohen JE, Montero A, Israel ZH. Prognosis and clinical relevance of anisocoria-craniotomy latency for epidural haematoma in comatose patients. J Trauma. 1996;41(1):120-2. http://doi.org/10.1097/00005373- 199607000-00019. PMid:8676403.
15. Dubey A, Pillai SV, Sastry KVR. Does volume of extradural hematoma influence management strategy outcome? Neurol India. 2004;52(4):443-5. PMid:15626829.
16. Heinzelmann M, Platz A, Imhof HG. Outcome after acute extradural haematoma, influence of additional injuries and neurological complications in the ICU. Injury. 1996;27(5):345-9. http:// doi.org/10.1016/0020-1383(95)00223-5. PMid:8763290.
17. Jamjoom A. The influence of concomitant intradural pathology on the presentation and outcome of patients with acute traumatic extradural haematoma. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1992;115(3-4):86-9. http://doi.org/10.1007/BF01406363. PMid:1605089.
18. Korinth M, Weinziert M, Gilsbach JM. Treatment options in traumatic epidural hematomas. Unfallchirurg. 2002;105(3):224-30. http://doi.org/10.1007/s001130100316. PMid:11995217.
19. Kuday C, Uzan M, Hanci M. Statistical analysis of the factors affecting the outcome of extradural haematomas: 115 cases. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1994;131(3-4):206-6. http://doi.org/10.1007/BF01808613. PMid:7754821.
20. Paterniti S, Fiore P, Macri E, et al. Extradural haematoma. Report of 37 consecutive cases with survival. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1994;131(2):207- 10. http://doi.org/10.1007/BF01808614. PMid:7754822.
21. Servadei F, Vergoni G, Staffa G, et al. Extradural haematomas: how many deaths can be avoided? Protocol for early detection on haematoma in minor head injury. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1995;1(133):50-5. http:// doi.org/10.1007/BF01404947. PMid:8561036.
22. Servadei F. Prognostic factors in severely head injured adult patients with epidural hematomas. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1997;139(4):273-8. http://doi.org/10.1007/BF01808821. PMid:9202765.
23. Kiboi JG, Nganga HK, Kitunguu PK, Mbuthia JM. Factors influencing the outcomes in extradural hematomas patients. Ann Afr Surg. 2015;12(1):14-8.
24. Kiboi JG, Kitunguu PK, Angwenyi P, Mbuthia F, Sagina LS. Predictors of functional recovery in African patients with traumatic intracranial hematomas. World Neurosurg. 2011;75(5-6):586-91. http:// doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2010.05.041. PMid:21704911.
25. Singh R, Sahu A, Singh K, Prasad RS, Pandey N. Clinical, operative, and outcome analysis of giant extradural hematoma: a retrospective study in tertiary care center. Surg Neurol Int. 2020;11:236. http:// doi.org/10.25259/SNI_128_2020. PMid:32874739.
26. Bullock MR, Chesnut R, Ghajar J, Gordon D, Hartel R, Newell DW. Surgical management of acute epidural hematoma. Neurosurgery. 2006;58:S2-15. http://doi.org/10.1097/00006123-200603001-00006.
27. Lee EJ, Hung YC, Wang LC, Chung KC, Chen HH. Factors influencing the functional outcome of patients with acute epidural haematomas: analysis of 200 patients undergoing surgery. J Trauma. 1998;45(5):946- 52. http://doi.org/10.1097/00005373-199811000-00017. PMid:9820707.
28. Ayogu OM, Onobun DE, Igbokwe KK, Chizin CU, Morfi O, Ibeneme S. Factors affecting the outcome of traumatic brain injured patients with acute epidural haematoma in National Hospital, Abuja. J West Afr Coll Surg. 2021;11(1):1-4. http://doi.org/10.4103/jwas.jwas_16_22. PMid:35873877.
29. Emejulu JK, Uche EO, Nwankwo EU. The challenges of managing acute extradural hematoma in a Nigerian neurosurgical center – Still a long way to go. World Neurosurg. 2014;82(6):969-73. http:// doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2014.09.002. PMid:25204718.
30. Özkan Ü, Kemaloghu S, Özates M, Güzel A, That M. Analyzing extradural haematomas: a retrospective clinical investigation. Dicle Med J. 2007;34(1):14-9.
31. Hassan N, Azam F, Ahmad S, Usman M. extradural hematoma surgical outcome using Glasgow Coma scale in a tertiary care hospital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. J Postgrad Med Inst. 2019;33(2):155-9.
32. Husain M, Ojha BK, Chandra A, et al. Contralateral motor deficit in extradural hematoma: analysis of 35 patients. Indian J Neurotrauma. 2007;4(1):41-4. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0973-0508(07)80010-4.
33. Ayub S, Ali M, Ilyas M. Acute extradural hematoma: factors affecting the outcome. J Postgraduate Med Inst JPMI. 2005;19(2):208-11.
34. Yurt I, Bezircioglu H, Ersahim Y, Demirçivi F, Kahraman M, Tektas S. Extradural hematoma: Analysis of 190 cases. Turkish Neurosurgery 1996; 6)1): 63-67.
35. Budzar H. Acute extradural hematoma analysis factors influencing the outcome of patients undergoing surgery in coma. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 1999;9:511-4.
36. Navdeep SS, Vikas R, Yashbir D, Grewall SS. Factors predicting outcome in patients with severe head injury: multivariate analysis. Indian J Neurotrauma. 2012;9(1):45-8. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnt.2012.04.009.
37. Narayan RK, Greenberg RP, Milles JD, Enas GG. Improved confidence of outcome prediction in severe head injury. J Neurosurg. 1981;54(6):751- 62. http://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1981.54.6.0751. PMid:7241184.
38. Baykanner K, Alp H, Çeviker N, Keskil S, Seçkin Z. Observation of 95 patients with extradural hematoma and review of the literature. Surg Neurol. 1988;30(5):339-41. http://doi.org/10.1016/0090-3019(88)90195- 4. PMid:3055383.
39. Lobato RD, Rivas JJ, Cordobes F, et al. Acute epidural hematoma: an analysis of factors influencing the outcome of patients undergoing surgery in coma. J Neurosurg. 1988;68(1):48-57. http://doi.org/10.3171/ jns.1988.68.1.0048. PMid:3335912.
40. Rivas JJ, Lobato RD, Saraiba R, Cordobes F, Cabrera A, Gómez P. Extradural hematoma: analysis of factors influencing the courses of 161 patients. Neurosurgery. 1988;23(1):44-51. http:// doi.org/10.1227/00006123-198807000-00010. PMid:3173664.
41. Bejjani GK, Donahue DJ, Rusin J, Broemeling LD. Radiological and clinical criteria for the management of epidural hematomas in children. Pediatr Neurosurg 1996;25(6):302-8. http://doi.org/10.1159/000121144.
42. Cook RJ, Dorsch NWC, Fearnside MR, Chaseling R. Outcome prediction in extradural hematomas. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1988;95(3- 4):90-4. http://doi.org/10.1007/BF01790766. PMid:3228007.
43. Jamjoom A, Cummins B, Jamjoom ZA. Clinical characteristics of traumatic extradural hematoma: a comparison between children and adults. Neurosurg Rev. 1994;17(4):277-81. http://doi.org/10.1007/ BF00306818. PMid:7753416.
44. Pereira CU, Santos EAS, Cavalcante S, Serra MV, Pascotto D, Fontoura EAF. Hematoma extradural intracraniano. J Bras Neurocir. 2005;16(1):25-34. http://doi.org/10.22290/jbnc.v16i1.509.
45. Lima MG, Barros MB, Cesar CL, Goldbaum M, Carandina L, Ciconelli RM. Health related quality of life among the elderly: a population-based study using SF-36 survey. Cad Saude Publica. 2009;25(10):2159-67. http://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-311X2009001000007. PMid:19851616.
46. Taussky P, Widmer HR, Takala J, Fandino J. Outcome after acute traumatic subdural and epidural haematoma in Switzerland. A single-centre experience. Swiss Med Wkly. 2008;138(19-20):281-5. PMid:18491241.
47. Mazza C, Pascualin A, Feriotti G, Da Piab R. Traumatic extradural hematomas in children: experience with 62 cases. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1982;65(1-2):67-80. http://doi.org/10.1007/BF01405443. PMid:7136879.
48. Zuccarello M, Fiore DL, Trincvia G. Extradural hematoma: statistical analysis of 413 cases. In: Villani R, Papo I, Geovanelli M, Garni SM, Tomei G, editors. Advances in neurotraumatology. Amsterdam: Excepta Medica; 1983. p. 238-41.
49. Bir SC, Maiti TK, Ambekar S, Nanda A. Incidence, hospital costs and in-hospital mortality rates of epidural hematoma in the United States. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2015;138:99-103. http:// doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2015.07.021. PMid:26318360.
50. Scotter J, Hendrickson S, Marcus HJ, Wilson MH. Prognosis of patients with bilateral fixed dilated pupils secondary to traumatic extradural or subdural haematoma who undergo surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Emerg Med J. 2015;32(8):654-9. http:// doi.org/10.1136/emermed-2014-204260. PMid:25385844.
51. Islam MJ, Saha SK, Elahy ME. islam KMT, Ahamed SV. Factors influencing the outcome of patients with acute extradural hematomas undergoing surgery. Blangladesh J Med Sci. 2011;10(2):111-20.
52. Reale F, Delfini R, Mencantini G. Epidural hematomas. J Neurosurg Sci. 1984;28(1):9-16. PMid:6470802.
53. Onodera K, Kamida T, Kimura T, et al. Identification of prognostic factors in surgically treated patients with acute epidural hematoma. Asian J Neurosurg. 2020;15(3):532-6. http://doi.org/10.4103/ajns. AJNS_129_20. PMid:33145203.
54. Ali MF, Khan AA, Imran M, Zulfigar F, Valdin MM, Ashraf J. Traumatic extradural hematoma: factors affecting the surgical outcome. J Dow Univ Health Sci. 2016;10(1):9-13. http://doi.org/10.36570/ jduhs.2016.1.497.
55. Prajapati DV, Shah NJ. Outcome of traumatic extradural hematoma (EDH) using Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS). Int Surg J. 2018;5(10):3327- 34. http://doi.org/10.18203/2349-2902.isj20184083.
56. Dharkar SR, Bhargava N. Bilateral epidural hematoma. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1991;110(1-2):29-32. http://doi.org/10.1007/ BF01402044. PMid:1882715.
57. Babu ML, Bhasin SK, Kumar A. extradural hematoma: an experience of 300 cases. JK Science. 2005;7:205-7.
58. Chowdhury NK, Raihan MZ, Choudhury FH, Ashadullah ATM, Sarkar MH, Hossain SS. Surgical management of traumatic extradural hematoma: experiences with 610 patients and prospective analysis. Indian J Neurotrauma. 2008;5(1):75-9.
59. Khattak AU, Iftikhar-UL-Haq M, Azam F. Frequency of extradural hematoma in patients with head injury. Pak J Neurol Surg. 2012;16(2):83- 5.
60. Kumar J, Prakash A, Harsh V, Kumar A. Vertex extradural hematoma: a diagnostic dilemma. Asian J Neurosurg. 2017;12(4):718-20. http:// doi.org/10.4103/1793-5482.215758. PMid:29114292.
61. Ersahin Y, Mutluer S, Guzalbag E. Extradural haematoma: analysis of 146 cases. Childs Nerv Syst. 1993;9(2):96-9. http://doi.org/10.1007/ BF00305316. PMid:8319240.
62. Cordobes F, Lobato RD, Rivas JJ, et al. Observation on 82 patients with extradural hematoma. J Neurosurg. 1981;54(2):179-86. http:// doi.org/10.3171/jns.1981.54.2.0179. PMid:7452331.
63. Sakai H, Takagi H, Ohtaka H, Tanabe T, Ohwada T, Yada K. Serial changes in acute extradural hematoma size and associated changes in level of consciousness and intracranial pressure. J Neurosurg. 1988;68(4):566- 70. http://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1988.68.4.0566. PMid:3351584.
64. Haselsberg K, Pucher R, Auer L. Prognosis after acute subdural or epidural haemorrhage. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1988;90(3-4):111-6. http://doi.org/10.1007/BF01560563. PMid:3354356.
65. Seelig JM, Marshall LF, Toutant SM, et al. Traumatic acute epidural hematoma: unrecognized high lethality in comatose patients. Neurosurgery. 1984;15(5):617-20. http://doi.org/10.1227/00006123- 198411000-00001. PMid:6504278.
66. Hoffmann M, Lefering R, Rueger JM, et al. Pupil evaluation in addition to Glasgow Coma Scale componentes in prediction of traumatic brain injury and mortality. Br J Surg. 2012;99(Suppl 1):122-30. http:// doi.org/10.1002/bjs.7707. PMid:22441866.
67. Howlader RA, Sarker AC, Das S, Islam M, Sadhukhan UK, Yasmin L. Surgical outcome of extradural hematoma patients in relation to preoperative neurological status. Open J Modern Neurosurg. 2021;11(4):223-33. http://doi.org/10.4236/ojmn.2021.114026.
68. Hamid NA, Mian JM. Factors affecting mortality in extradural hematomas. Pak J Neurol. 1998;4(1):30-4.
69. Gurer B, Kertmen H, Yilmaz ER, Dolgun H, Hasturk AE, Sekerci Z. The surgical outcome of traumatic extradural hematomas causing brain herniation. Turk Neurosurg. 2017;27(1):37-52. PMid:27593740.
70. Ruff LM, Mendelow AD, Lecky FE. Improving mortality after extradural haematoma in England and Wales. Br J Neurosurg. 2013;27(1):19-23. http://doi.org/10.3109/02688697.2012.709555. PMid:22909250.
71. Mushtaq RL, Khaleeg S, Zaman KU. Association of outcome of traumatic extradural hematoma with Glasgow Coma Scale and hematoma size. Ann Pak Inst Med Sci. 2010;6(3):133-8.
72. Ganz JC. The lucid interval associated with epidural bleeding: evolving understanding. J Neurosurg. 2013;118(4):739-45. http:// doi.org/10.3171/2012.12.JNS121264. PMid:23330993.
73. Khairat A, Waseem M. Epidural hematoma. In: StartPearls. Treasure Island (Fl). StartPearls Publishing; 2019. Available from: https.// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30085524. Accessed: 20/4/2025.
74. Keet PC. Extradural hematoma. An Analysis of two 8 years series at Groote Schuur Hospital. S Afr Med J. 1984;66(24):913-6. PMid:6505903. 75. Orteler M, Kelly DF, Arthur MC. Progressive haemorrhage after head trauma: predictors and consequences of the evolving injury. J Neurosurg. 2002;97(6):1484-5.
76. Gutowski P, Meier U, Rhode V, Lenicke J, von der Brelie C. Clinical outcome of epidural hematoma treated surgically in the era of modern resuscitation and trauma care. World Neurosurg. 2018;118:e166-74. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2018.06.147. PMid:29959068.
77. Rockswold GL, Leonaid PR, Nagib MG. Analysis of management in thirty-three closed head injury patients who “talked and deteriorated”. Neurosurgery. 1987;21(1):51-5. http://doi.org/10.1227/00006123- 198707000-00010. PMid:3614604.
78. Faheem M, Jaiswal M, Ojha BK, Chandra A, Singh SK, Srivastava C. Traumatic pediatric extradural hematoma: an institutional study of 228 patients in tertiary care center. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2019;54(4):237-44. http://doi.org/10.1159/000501043. PMid:31288223.
79. Jahns FP, Miroz JP, Messerer M, et al. Quantitative pupillometry for the monitoring of intracranial hypertension in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. Crit Care 2019;23(1):155. http://doi.org/10.1186/ s13054-019-2436-3. PMID: 31046817.
80. Volpi PC, Robba C, Rota M, Vargiolu A, Citerio G. Trajetories of early secondary insults correlate to outcomes of traumatic brain injury: results from a large, single center, observational study. BMC Emerg Med. 2018;18(1):52. http://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-018-0197-y. PMid:30518336.
81. Khan MB, Riaz M, Javed G, Hashimi FA, Sananllar M, Ahmed SI. Surgical management of traumatic extradural hematoma in children: experiences and analysis from 24 consecutively treated outcomes in a developing Country. Surg Neurol Int. 2013;4(1):103-9. http:// doi.org/10.4103/2152-7806.116425. PMid:24032078.
82. Brazdzionis J, Patchana T, Savia P, et al. Medical comorbidities associated with outcomes in patients with traumatic epidural hematomas. Cureus. 2021;13(6):e15514. http://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.15514. PMid:34277158.
83. Aurangzeb A, Ahmed E, Maqbool S, et al. Burr hole evacuation of extradural hematoma in mass trauma. A life saving and time saving procedure: Our experience in the Earthquake of 2005. Turk Neurosurg. 2016;26(2):205-8. PMid:26956813.
84. Erickson K, Hakasson S. Computed tomography of epidural hematomas. Association with intracranial lesions and clinical correlation. Acta Radiol Diagn (Stockh). 1981;22(5):513-9. http:// doi.org/10.1177/028418518102200501. PMid:7331863.
85. Tataranu L, Ciubotaru V, Paunescu D, Spatariu A, Radoi M. Extradural hematoma – is surgery always mandatory? Rev Med Leg. 2014;22(1):45-50. http://doi.org/10.4323/rjlm.2014.45.
86. Zimmerman RA, Bilaniuk LT. Computed tomographic staging of traumatic epidural bleeding. Radiology. 1982;144(4):809-12. http:// doi.org/10.1148/radiology.144.4.7111729. PMid:7111729.
87. Rossi J Jr, Andrade AF, Yeng LC, et al. Epidural hematoma: A prospective analysis of morbidity and mortality in 173 patients. Braz Neurosurg. 2015;34(1):20-4. http://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1547391.
88. Ullman JS. Epidural hemorrhage. Med Journal. 2002;3(1):1-8.
89. Knuckey NW, Gelbard S, Epstein MH. The management of “asymptomatic” epidural hematomas. J Neurosurg. 1989;70(3):392-6. http://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1989.70.3.0392. PMid:2915245.
90. Heiskanen O. IEH skanen O. Epidural hematoma. Surg Neurol. 1975;4(1):23-6. PMid:1166398.
91. Pereira CU, Silva EASS, Dias LAA. Hematoma extradural intracraniano: correlação entre o volume do hematoma com a localização e idade do paciente. J Bras Neurocir. 2004;15(1):59-66.
92. Pang D, Iorton JA, Kerron JM, Wilberger JE, Vries JK. Nonsurgical management of extradural hematoma in children. J Neurosurg. 1983;59(6):958-71. http://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1983.59.6.0958. PMid:6631518.
93. Wang WH, Hu LS, Lin H, et al. Risk factors for post-traumatic massive cerebral infarction secondary to space-occupying epidural hematoma. J Neurotrauma. 2014;31(16):1444-50. http://doi.org/10.1089/ neu.2013.3142. PMid:24773559.
94. Pereira CU, Santos LPA. “Sinal do redemoinho” em hematoma extradural hiperagudo. Braz Neurosurg. 2013;32(3):207-10. http:// doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1626016.
95. Grevsten S, Pelletieri L. Surgical decision in the treatment of extradural haematoma. Acta Chir Scand. 1982;148(2):97-102. PMid:7148320.
96. Khalid SM, Raihan MZ, Chowdhury FH, Ashadullah AT, Sarkar MH, Hossain SS. Surgical management of traumatic extradural hematoma: experiences of 610 patients and prospective analysis. Indian J Neurotrauma. 2008;5(1):75-9. http://doi.org/10.1016/ S0973-0508(08)80004-4.
97. Cuccinello C, Martellotta N, Nigro D, Citro E. Conservative management of extradural haematomas. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1993;120(1-2):47-52. http://doi.org/10.1007/BF02001469. PMid:8434517.
98. Adams JH, Murray LS. Diffuse axonal injury due to non-missile in humans an analysis of 45 cases. Ann Neurol. 1982;12(6):557-63. http:// doi.org/10.1002/ana.410120610. PMid:7159059.
99. Rochat P, Johannesen HH, Poulsgard L, Bogeskay L. Sequentially evolved bilateral extradural hematoma. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2002;105(1):39-41. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0303-8467(02)00099-9. PMid:12445923.
100. Ali M, Filza F, Khan T. Outcome assessment of acute extradural hematoma. Pak J Neurol Surg. 2003;7(1):22-8.
101. Sakas DE, Bullock MR, Teasdale GM. One-year outcome following craniotomy for traumatic hematoma in patients with fixed dilated pupils. J Neurosurg. 1995;82(6):961-5. http://doi.org/10.3171/ jns.1995.82.6.0961. PMid:7760198.
102. Rosyidi RM, Priyanto B, Al Fauzi A, Sutiono AB. Toward zero mortality in acute epidural hematoma: a review in 286 cases problems and challenges in the developing country. Interdiscip Neurosurg. 2019;17(1):12-8. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.inat.2019.01.021.
103. Stephanov S. Posoperative mortality in acute extradural hematoma. Br J Neurosurg. 1993;7(5):461-3. http:// doi.org/10.3109/02688699308995067. PMid:8267884.
104. Nnadi MO, Bankole BO, Fente B. Outcome of surgically treated traumatic extradural hematoma. J Adv Med Med Res. 2012;12(1):1-9.
105. Gnani E, Nadum M, Bano A, Irshad S, Zaidi GI, KhaleequzZaman M. Road traffic accident as a major contribution to neurosurgical mortality in adults. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2003;13(3):143-5. PMid:12689531.
106. Ramazan A, Wani A, Malik AH, Kirnani A, Wani MA. Acute bilateral extradural hematomas. Neurol India. 2002;50(2):217-9. PMid:12134196.
107. Beketi KA, James EY, Gnadi-Pion F, et al. Hématomes extraduraux chez l”adulte au Togo. Eur Scan J. 2018;14(6):229-36.
108. Sullivan TP, Jarvik JG, Cohen WA. Follow-up of conservatively managed epidural hematomas: implications for timing of repeat CT. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1999;20(1):107-13. PMid:9974064.
109. Rehman L, Khattak A, Naseer A, Mushtaq A. Outcome of acute traumatic extradural hematoma. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2008;18(12):759-62. PMid:19032889.
110. Choi DH, Jeong TS, Kim WK, KNTDB INVESTIGATORS. Clinical outcome of patients diagnosed traumatic intracranial epidural hematoma with severe brain injury (Glasgow Coma Scale < 8) who undergo surgery: A report from the Korean Neuro-Trauma Data Bank System. Korean J Neurotrauma. 2022;18(2):153-60. http:// doi.org/10.13004/kjnt.2022.18.e62. PMid:36381437.
111. Sangiovanni G, Pugliese R, Campagne G, Silvani V, Infredo L, Brambilla GI. Spontaneous healing of acute epidural hematomas (EDHs): a study of 35 patients. Med Sci Res. 1996;24:631-3.
112. Chen TY, Wong CW, Chang CN, et al. The expectant treatment of “asymptomatic” supratentorial epidural hematomas. Neurosurgery. 1993;32(2):176-9, discussion 179. http://doi.org/10.1227/00006123- 199302000-00004. PMid:8437654.
113. Wong CW. The CT criteria for conservative treatment – but under close clinical observation of posterior fossa epidural hematomas. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1994;126(2-4):124-7. http://doi.org/10.1007/ BF01476421. PMid:8042543.
114. Hamilton M, Wallace C. Nonoperative management of acute epidural hematoma diagnosed by CT: The Neuroradiagist’s role. AJNR Neuroradiology. 1992;13(3):853-9, discussion 860-2. PMid:1590183.
115. Soon WC, Marcus H, Wilson M. Traumatic acute extradural haematoma – Indications for surgery revisited. Br J Neurosurg. 2016;30(2):233- 4. http://doi.org/10.3109/02688697.2015.1119237. PMid:26742836.
116. Jones NR, Molly CJ, Kloeden CN, North JB, Simpson DA. Extradural hematoma: trends in outcome over 35 years. Br J Neurosurg. 1993;7(5):465-71. http://doi.org/10.3109/02688699308995068. PMid:8267885.
Submitted date:
04/20/2025
Accepted date:
04/22/2025
Facebook
Google+
Twitter
LinkedIn
Mendeley
StumbleUpon
CiteULike
Reddit
Email